Summary of Critical Theory

Summary of Critical Theory The Central Claims of Critical Theory In order to understand the central claims of Critical Theory, it must first be defined. What is Critical Theory? Critical Theory first coined as such in 1937 is a name given to a series of new approaches to the study of culture, literature and thought that developed during the 1960’s primarily in France (Leitch, 2001). It refers to a series of pathways for intellectual inquiry that first emerged with the end of the 18th century European Enlightenment (mid 1600’s to late 1700’s) (Nowlan, 2001) in which the causes associated with it were legal equality, the right of ordinary Europeans to hold their rulers to account, the rule of law, transparent government, freedom of expression, the right of nations to self-determination and to freedom from colonial domination – and they are as relevant today as they were two hundred years ago (Glendening, 2003). Critical theory questions and challenges that which seems obvious, natural and simple in the world around us â⠂¬â€œ the conviction that what is, or what is in the process of becoming, or what appears to be, or what is most commonly understood to be, or necessary and inevitable – it does not accept any of this (Nowlan). The Frankfort School is the name given to a group of German Jewish intellectuals associated with the Institute for Social Research (Institut fur Sozialforschung) founded in 1923. Their work was an attempt to integrate psychoanalytic insights and the domain of culture into a Marxist analysis of twentieth century societies. The group composite was that of thinkers such as Horkheimer, Adorno and Marcuse (Agger, 1993). According to these theorists a â€Å"critical† theory may be distinguished from a â€Å"traditional† theory according to a specific practical purpose: a theory is critical to the extent that it seeks human emancipation, â€Å"to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them† (Horkheimer, 1982, 244). Theories aim to explain and transform circumstances; critical theories provide the descriptive and normative bases for social inquiry aimed at decreasing domination and increasing freedom in their forms. A clarification is given to what is not clearly understood or is questionable. Theories arise in many ranges – anthropology, film, religion, linguistics and political science – and even family lifestyle. Critical theory is not a system, nor it is reducible to any fixed set of proscriptions (Bronner, 2002). Today, social theory is in crisis because of growing dissatisfaction with the dominant methodologies and conceptions of social theory and research. The 1960’s is when Stephen Eric Bronner became interested in critical theory as new theoretical paradigms emerged that questioned prevailing quantitative, empiricist, and positivist conceptions of social theory. But where did the central claim of critical theory begin? Since the Frankfort School was the first Marxist-oriented research center affiliated with a major German university directed by Carl Grunberg, it tended to be empirical, historical, and oriented toward problems of the European working class movement. Works by Karl Korsch, Georg Lukacs and others also had works published in its journal Archiv fur die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung. Grunberg retired in 1930 and Max Horkheimer became the director. Under Horkheimer, the Institute sought to develop an interdisciplinary social theory which could serve as an instrument of social transformation publishing a journal Zeitschrift fur Sozialforschung (1932-1941) that contained a wholesome collection of articles and book reviews. These compilations detailed social theory and defined any misconceptions of their meaning. Horkheimer, upon assuming his position as Director, delivered an inaugural address on January 24, 1931, entitled â€Å"The State of Social Philosophy and the Tasks of an Institute for Social Research (Bronner and Keller 1989: 25-36). Within the contents of the text, he defines social philosophy as an attempt to elucidate the â€Å"fate of human beings, insofar as they are parts of state, law, economy, religion, in short, with the entire material and spiritual culture of humanity. He criticizes Kant for grounding social philosophy in the experience and faculties of the particular individual (Ibid: 33) and praises Hegel’s theory as an improvement but yet questions speculative metaphysics and their tendencies to celebrate a higher transcendental sphere of Being and meaning over concrete existence. (ibid:38-39). Horkheimer continued to defend the importance for critical social theory and envisaged a program of supra-disciplinary research which would investigate current social an d political problems. Philosophers, sociologists, economists, historians, and psychologists would be united in and ongoing research community who would do together what in other disciplines one individual does alone in a laboratory, which is what genuine scientists have always done: namely to pursue the great philosophical question using the most refined scientific methods; to reformulate and to make more precise the questions in the course of work as demanded by the object; and to develop new methods without losing sight of the universal (ibid:41). Hence we see the first steps toward the formation of critical theory in the making. It is impossible to characterize the â€Å"Frankfort School† as a whole since its work spanned several decades and involved a variety of thinkers who later engaged in sharp debates with each other. Rather, one should perceive various phases of Institute work: 1) the empirical-historical studies of the Grunberg era; 2) the attempts in the early to mid-1930’s to establish a materialist supra-disciplinary social theory under Horkheimer’s directorship; 3) the attempts to develop a critical theory of society during the exile period from about 1937 to the early 1940’s; 4) the dispersion of Institute members in the 1940’s and the new directions sketched out by Horkheimer and Adorno; 5) the return of the Institute to Germany and its work in Frankfurt during the 1950’s and 1960’s; 6) the development of critical theory in various directions by Fromm, Lowenthal, Marcuse, and others who remained in the U.S.; 7) the continuation of Institute projec ts and development of critical theory in Germany by Jurgen Habermas, Oskar Negt, Alfred Schmidt, and others in the 1970’s and 1980’s; and finally 8) contributions to critical theory by a variety of younger theorists and scholars currently active in Europe and the United States. Kellner believes that a crisis of critical theory emerged with its fragmentation after World War II. Social theory stopped developing despite some empirical research projects and sustained meta-theoretical analyses be certain of its members, especially Adorno (Kellner, 1989). He believes that critical theory provides the most advanced theoretical perspectives within contemporary social theory from the 1930’s through the early 1960’s; new socio-cultural developments since then have rendered obsolete some of its theses concerning on-dimensional society, the media, technology, and so on. In particular, critical theory has not continued to theorize new technologies, new developments in the media, changes in socialization practices, and new cultural developments. This is surprising as earlier contributions were precisely in these areas (Wiggershaus, 1986). Adorno did a great deal of work in social theory in the 1950’s and 1960’s, as well as turning out an incredible profusion of texts in the areas of literary criticism, cultural critique, philosophy, and aesthetics. His work turned from supra-disciplinary research to philosophical reflections (Kellner, 1989). Herbert Marcuse argued that Marxism had degenerated into a rigid orthodoxy and needed concrete experience to revivify the theory and that it neglected individual’s problems. He was concerned about individual liberation and well-being in addition to social transformation. The intentions of his writings were of great interest, yet many were unpublished and unknown (Kellner, 1984). The theory of hegemony by Antonio Gramsci reserves a place for the intellectuals in society. Men find themselves born in a process independent of their will, they cannot control it, they can seek only to understand it and guide their actions accordingly was noted to be economic determination by Marx. Gramsci was concerned to eradicate economic determinism to develop its explanatory power with respect to super-structural institutions. His holdings were that class struggle must always involve ideas and ideologies, ideas that would make the revolution and also that would prevent it. He stressed the role performed by human agency in historical change: economic crises by themselves would not subvert capitalism. He was more â€Å"dialectic† than â€Å"deterministic†: he tried to build a theory which recognized the autonomy, independence and importance of culture and ideology (Strinati, 1995). The works in the last decade relative to critical theory has followed Habermas in attempt to develop a more adequate philosophical aspect of critical theory (Heinemann, 1986). A deficit of social research and elaboration of new theoretical perspectives has come about with contributions from members of the postmodern camp who attempt to theorize the impact of new technologies, the media, and other socio-cultural developments (Kellner, 1988 and 1989). The focus on democracy as the location for cooperative, practical and transformative activity continues in the work of Jurgen Habermas, as does the attempt to determine the nature and limits of â€Å"real democracy† in complex pluralistic, and globalizing societies. Habermas’ work is concerned with rethinking the tradition of critical theory and German social philosophy. He has advanced that tradition in distinctive ways. His rationality consists not so much in the possession of knowledge and thus primarily concerned with the consistency and conten of one’s belief’s, but rather in â€Å"how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge† (Habermas, 1984). Rationality, freedom and justice are not just theoretical issues to be explored and debated. Habermas’ entire work aims to defend and continue the enlightenment project against the challenge of Weber’s instrumental rationality, Horkheimer and Adorno’s earlier critical t heory and Nietzscheanism in the forms of post-structuralism as presented by Foucault and Derrida and the postmodernism of Lyotard. The reconciliation of the competition of claims of the reason of the life and the world are contributions of Habermas to contemporary and social theory. His account and his answers are not complete, but raise questions without losing the hope of continued research (Rasmussen, 1990). People create conditions and deal with them. Their opinions influence the thoughts of others. In his theory, Habermas fails to incorporate or appreciate gender and racial inequality. Habermas’ calls for particular â€Å"reconstructive sciences,† whose aim it is to render theoretically explicit the intuitive, pre-theoretical know-how underlying such basic human competences as speaking and understanding, judging, and acting. It is not certain if Habrmas’ theories are built on a conception of the world in which essentialist characteristics (middle class, white, males, or class) dominate. Historically discourses of rationality and progress have sided with men over women (Stanley and Pateman, 1991). Certain valuable elements are cited of by Selya Benhabib (1986) that can provide basis for a wide-ranging normative critique of contemporary society. An excerpt from Critical Theory and Society: A Reader: â€Å"essay is a stylistic vehicle with its inherently unfinished quality is the logical form for generating anti-systemic claims and fostering the existence of reflexivity† perhaps best describes the logic that inspired Bronner and Kellner to publish this book. Within is a collection of seminal essays, many appearing in English for the first time, which provides an excellent overview of the critical theory developed by the Frankfurt School. An essay is a short work that treats of a topic from an author’s personal point of view, often taking into account subjective experiences and personal reflections upon them (Wikipedia). What better way can a criticism be announced than through an essay? Personal opinions are relished because they may have something within their contents that was not seen by others. In the essay Le Prix Du Progress by Max Horkheimer exemplifies the nature of discussions that were presented to the early theorists. A French physiologist, Pierre Flourens, was disenchanted with the use of chloroform. He states his belief, and cites his reasoning. The essay ends with Horkheimer’s comments. Somewhat in the form of an editorial for a newspaper, but yet an answer is given. A concern was presented – a problematic thought was answered. Another famous essay by Theodor Adorno elaborates on Culture Industry Reconsidered. In it Adorno explains the term culture industry, corrects inconsistencies from a prior publication and remarks on the term â€Å"mass culture† (from â€Å"The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Cuture† London: Routledge, 1991). In Critical Theory and Society: A Reader are included the works of Horheimer, Erich Fromm, Lowenthal, Pellock, Herbert Marcuse, to mention a few. The time realm of critical theory displays evidence that modern culture needs to redefine the conclusions of its predecessors. The understanding of theories, imply that they have to be updated continually to include new circumstances. Modernization has to be critiqued to include the changing of the times. We should be concerned with something other than uncovering the past. Instead we should reinvigorate the present, salvage the Enlightenment legacy, and contest those who would institutionally freeze its radicalism and strip away its protest character (Israel, 2001). The inclusion of the way people act and why they act can begin with critical theory of family. Family history provides an example of some of the theoretical deficiencies as in social scenes. The family is attacked and defended with equal vehemence. With a dominant empiricist tradition, historians have come to the field of family history without a clear sense of what the significant questions are. They have not self-consc iously theorized the family as a field of investigation. Instead they began by adopting the conventional wisdom of sociology which, goes back for Federic Le Play (L’Organisation de la famille selon le vrai modele signale par l’histoire de toutes les races et de tous les temps –Paris, 1871), and saw a broad change in the family from an extended form of the Middle Ages to a nuclear form of modernity (Shorter, 1975). From the family come the leaders of the world. Understanding distinct family structures enables an outline to the future tasks of its members. The tendency of Marxist social theorists is to view the family as a dependent variable, a secondary structure, unintelligible in its own right, which will change after the revolution. The family is an intelligible as a structure (Morgan, 1975) composed of race, religion, gender, which impose these factors towards their beliefs. From a â€Å"Gramscian† perspective the mass media have to be interpreted as an instrument to spread and reinforce dominant hegemony – or they can be used to spread counter-hegemonic ideas too. â€Å"Pop culture and the mass media are subject to the production, reproduction and transformation of hegemony through the institution of civil society which cover the areas of cultural production and consumption. Hegemony operates culturally and ideologically through the institutions of civil society which characterizes mature liberal-democratic, capitalist societies. These institutions include education, the family, the church, the mass media, popular culture, etc. (Strinati, 1995: 168-169). From Strinati’s point of view the main problem with Gramsci’s ideas is the same as the the Frankfurt School’s theories and Althusser’s work: their Marxist background. The framework does not allow history to contradict the theory, and the interpretation of reality becomes rather elementary. Critical Theory offers an approach to distinctly normative issues that cooperates with the social sciences in a nonproductive way. Its domain is inquiry into the normative dimension of social activity, in particular how actors employ their practical knowledge and normative attitudes from complex perspectives in various sorts of contexts. It also must consider social facts as problematic situations from the point of view of variously situated agents. In conclusion, Kellner feels that in order to find a way out of the contemporary crisis of social theory, it must develop new perspectives. Critical Theory should be responded to with theoretical analyses of developments within the capitalist economy and of changes in class stratification, the labor process, new technologies, the media, and politics. The central claims of critical theory should be emphasized by those who wish to revitalize it in an attempt to politicize it with new social movements and existing political struggles to buil d a better society. The development of both its â€Å"analysis of the present situation and a new politics is in order to become once again the cutting edge of radical social theory† (Kellner, 1989). Critical theory enables the development and refinement of the ability to engage in comments as critics, through movements encompassed around incomprehensible situations of society. All productive and concerned citizens should be the empowered critical agents that are able to question, challenge and contribute toward the progress of transformation of the prevailing status quo within the communities, societies, and cultures that are worked in to help maintain and reproduce every day. In relation citizens should not only be inescapably interested, but also vitally important as participants to opinionate on theory (Nowlan). BIBLIOGRAPHY Agger, Ben. 1993. The Discourse of Domination: From the Frankfurt School to Postmodernism. Northwestern University Press. January. Bronner, Stephen Eric. 2002. Critical Theory Its Theorists. Routledge Publishers: 2nd Edition. April. Bronner, Stephen Eric and Douglas Keller. 1989. Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. New York and London: Routledge. Glendening, Marc. 2003. Visions for a democratic Europe. Brussels, December 12. Habermas, J. 1987. The Theory of Communicative Action. Volumes 1 and 2. Boston: Beacon Press. Heinemann, Benhabib, Seyla. 1986. Critique, Norm, and Utopia. New York: Columbia University Press. Horkheimer, M, 1982. Critical Theory. New York: Seabury Press. Israel, Jonathan. 2001. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and theMaking of Modernity 1650-1750. Oxford University Press. Kellner, Douglas. 1984. Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism. London and Berkeley: Macmillian and University of California Press. 1988. Postmodernism as Social Theory: Some Problems and Challenges,† Theory, Culture Society, Vol. 5: 240-269. 1989. Critical Theory, Marxism, and Modernity. Cambridge and Baltimore: Polity Press and John Hopkins University Press. Leitch, Vincent B. et al. (eds), The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (New York/London: W.W. Norton, 2001. Morgan, D.H.J. Social Theory and the Family. London, 1975. Nowlan, Bob. Introduction: What Is Critical Theory and Why Study It? University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. September 21, 2001. Stanley, L and Pateman, C. 1991. Feminist Interpretations and Political Theory. Cambridge: Polity. Rasmussen, D. 1990. Reading Habermas. London: Blackwell. Shorter, Edward. The Making of the Modern Family. New York. 1975. Strinati, Dominic. 1995. An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture. Rouyledge, London. Wiggershaus, Rolf. 1986. Die Frankfurter Schule. Munich: Hanser. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay

Sugar Sweet :: Papers

Sugar Sweet The sugar pulsed through her blood. She took another bite. The smooth, sweet chocolate fused into her body removing the pain. She could feel their stares. Burning through her as she ate. She seized the remainder of the chocolate and walked out. It was intolerable. Every time she ate she could feel those around her wishing to throw up. She could feel their whispers of disgust. As she was leaving the food court she felt a tap on her shoulder. She spun around, preparing herself for another snide remark about her size. "What?" she snapped. "You forgot this" the girl replied, her tight jeans accentuating her flawless figure. The girl handed the leaflet to her. "Looks like you might need it" With a snort of laughter she left and returned to her friends. She ran through the rest of the shopping centre. Past the countless shops, pictures of stick figure models stuck to their windows. Sitting under the stairs on the station she extracted the remnants of a family block of chocolate from her bag. She flicked through the leaflet "Lose weight now". She had never seen it before. She began sobbing. The train pulled out of the station. She remained sitting hidden under the steps. Consumed by distress the tall figure that slid up next to her went unnoticed. He lit a cigarette causing her to jump. "What's the problem, babe?" he said offering her a cigarette. "No thanks I don't smoke" she muttered, wiping away the tears. Suddenly conscious of her size she folder her arms across her stomach. "Hey I've seen you before" she sniffed, "You're Dads apprentice" "Yeah, that's me. Look, do you want a lift somewhere?" Face flushed, crying, she unlocked the front door and ran upstairs to her bedroom. She shouldn't have done it. His sweet charm had left her trapped in a car while he tried to come closer. "Give it ago, come on I promise it won't hurt". He had thrust two pills into her mouth.

360 Degree Feedback

Abstract As today’s businesses continue to expand, workers are expected to perform well on their jobs. This is what truly happened to management who has a tendency to measure how well they are doing on their job. The job done in a certain period of time is frequently evaluated by performance appraisal. Performance appraisals lead to enhancing employee’s performance, internal communication (relationship), and quality improvements as well. Some experts argue that formal performance appraisal is somewhat useless and many of them contemplate performance appraisals can be detrimental to quality improvement and convey some negative perceptions to the management (David Law, 2007). Albeit many professionals pointed out disadvantages associated with using performance appraisal, I contemplate that its benefits outweigh drawbacks. As such, a 360-degree feedback is one of the numerous examples of performance evaluation methods. Performance appraisals can be used to measure one’s job performance with feedback from subordinates, peers, and managers in the organization, so that everyone in the particular organization knows what and where he or she needs to improve. In addition, well-scheduled 360-degree feedbacks lead to positive changes in worker’s job satisfaction and enhance the company’s effort to attain its own interest. The stable encouragement of the effects of performance appraisal has a variety of short-term and long-term consequences including improved job performance, harmonious interpersonal relationships (superiors and subordinates), and as well as advanced quality management (continuous improvement) within organizations. History The 360-degree feedback was initially used by the U. S. Armed Forces to support development of its staff in the 1940’s. Later on Clark Wilson from the University of Bridgeport (Connecticut) developed the first 360-degree feedback survey instruments for management development and it has been used and studied since 1973 (www. erformanceprograms. com). Valuable factors A 360-degree feedback offers a variety of remarkably potential benefits. According to Stephane Brutus et al. (2006), all of the following benefits have been applied to six different countries in distinct functions, such as: accounting, finance, manufacturing, and many other primary departments. â⠂¬ ¢Individuals get a broader perspective of how they are perceived by others than previously possible. It indicates that awareness of and relevance of competencies in workers’ psyche will continue to increase over time. At this point, management should be aware that they too have development needs that are crucial for the whole organization. Once this step has been applied, employees would next give more reliable feedback to managers about their performance. I believe this method could be seen as a win-win situation which is beneficial for both workers and management. †¢Encouraging more open feedback — new insights. It indicates that reinforcing the desired competencies of the business requires a clearer picture to senior management of individual’s real worth. A 360-degree feedback clarifies the employee’s critical performance aspects because open feedback gives people a more rounded view of performance than they had previously. †¢Identifying key development areas for the individual, a department and the organization as a whole. Individuals’ strengths can be used to the best advantage of the business. A rounded view of the individual’s/ team’s/ organization’s performance determines appropriately strengths and weaknesses in business environment. Therefore, the self-awareness of managers will have personally impact upon subordinates. †¢Supporting a climate of continuous improvement. Starting to improve the climate/ morale will be measured through the survey. Management should focus on agenda and discuss for development based upon the collected 360-degree feedback. Goals and objectives of 360-degree feedback Applying 360-feedback requires that both recipients and reviewers are involved in confidential feedback. The negative effect of transparent feedback can negatively affected by emotions and peer conflicts. This issue can lead to impaired job performance and adverse interpersonal relationship among the employees. Patricia Angelucci (2000) states the desired objectives of a 360-degree feedback are increasing professional accountability, motivating staff, and increasing employee morale and satisfaction (Angelucci, 2000). Importantly, she claims that 360-degree appraisal given to employees provides for constructive feedback and employee recognition by objectively measuring performance, and gives the employee the responsibility to contribute information (Patricia Angelucci, 2000). It is clear that using 360-degree feedback can necessarily improve labors’ job performance as long the evaluations are delivered honestly, openly, and objectively to the targets in every aspect of management including superiors and subordinates. Process of 360-feedback Robert Garbett et al. (2007) suggest several recommendations to optimize the usefulness of the process in preparing 360-degree feedback: 1. Thorough preparation. It is remarkably crucial to all members involved about the purpose and criteria used to identify role set members. Preparation indicates key to achieve successfulness in implementing 360-degree appraisal. 2. Suitability. Methods used in gathering information need to reflect what is convenient and appropriate to the colleagues one is working with. 3. Anonymity. Anonymity and openness were found to be useful. Open approaches offer more detailed information for the development of expertise and workforce effectiveness. Further, Garbett et al. (2007) add that the characteristic useful to ensure quality on 360-degree feedbacks is self-assessment based on critical reflection using an evidence-based framework of field expertise (Garbett, 2007). This method will prevent employees from mistakenly giving feedback to coworkers, and it should be based on observation of practice and experience in the past. The implementation of 360-degree feedback has been widely used across the globe since its benefits to the every sector of management. Metcalfe (1998) and Swain et al (2004) says, â€Å"The concept of 360-degree feedback has been extensively used, examined, and adapted in business and increasingly in healthcare as a developmental tool† (As cited in Garbett et al. , 2007, p. 343). Ten steps to conducting 360-degree feedback Chris Pearce (2007) suggests there are ten steps to help companies conduct 360-degree appraisal: ? Preparing for appraisal interviews. This step includes agreed performance objectives and reviews that have been applied at any given times. ?Planning appraisals Imperative interviews held by the management have to be relaxed and solemn will be covered on this step. ?Conducting appraisals The third step involves placing situation of the prolific substitutes thoughts, demonstrating the ability of comfort and prevention due to interruptions during the interview, and pioneering the basic regulation for appraisals and the concerns by appraisees. Reviewing achievements Next, this step explains about assessing appraisees’ accomplishment and detecting where the appraisees’ position. ?Sharing views on progress Offering responses on appraisees’ accomplishment, ensuring appraisees’ aggrement on the responses, and creating the improvement if needed are covered on this st ep. ?Considering ratings This step is concerned with contributing the appraisees’ beliefs by rating the conclusions before the last result comes up. ?Plans for improvement Expanding and accentuating the further progression of the failings must be applied in the conformity and conversation should be involved in this step. ?Dealing with development plans This step deals with sincerity and factuality that must be concerned with the appraisees’ objectives and profession ambition. ?Agreeing new objectives With regards to SMART which stands for specific, measurable, appropriate, realistic, and timed, appraisses’ goals and time spent should be involved in this step. Asking for feedback In the last step, questioning about appraisees’ responses to them, abridging the essential points of evaluation, and ending with conclusion should be applied for the last action. Discussion Every country has been fascinated with Japanese industry for decades and it became recognized as the world’s most competitive nation in the 1970s and 1980s. Nowadays, many small and big companies all over the world attempt to apply the Japanese system to their sys tem in every aspect of management. Several experts explain why Japan can compete well to attract its target market albeit the rivalry among the competing sellers is high in the country. It is simply a distinctive approach to Japanese management has brought remarkable impact in today’s practices such as total quality and continuous improvement (Porter, Takeuchi, & Sakakibara, 2000). With regards to improvement initiatives, Pryor, White, and Toombs (1998) point out that performance appraisal is one of the strategic quality management tools which use continuous improvement as a strategic weapon (http://www. 12manage. com). In addition, Bracken and Timmreck (1999) also agree that performance evaluations are essential for developing managerial behaviors in every level that provide data in its strategic efforts when they say, â€Å"As results of 360-degree feedback are used in conjunction with HR systems, such as staffing, succession planning, compensation, performance management and even, in some cases, downsizing† (As cited in Treena L. Gillespie, 2005, p. 363). In establishing 360-degree feedback, I contemplate there is another aspect affects people’s judgment relating to leaving feedbacks to coworkers. Coaching is one of the critical components of stimulating interpersonal relationship in conjunction with feedback results. Wright states, â€Å"The coaching component in management is a two way street. There needs to be open communication in order for successful coaching to take place† (Robert F. Wright, 2000). As such, I would like to emphasize that two-way interaction between subordinates and superiors is required in order to affect feedbacks and indeed, better feedbacks will generate better relationship. This component could cover poor communication problem which can lead to unpleasant feedbacks to employees within an organization. Nowadays, big companies such as British Airways, AT&T, Alberto Culver North America, and General Electric are increasingly using 360-degree feedback (Huet-Cox, Nielsen, & Sundstrom, 1999). According to Evans (2001), using 360-degree feedback can potentially provide a fuller, more realistic picture of the employee’s overall performance since every employee receives performance feedback from four sources: the supervisors, subordinates, peers and coworkers, and self-ratings (Evans, 2001). Effective appraisals usually lead to better performances from appraisees, and feedabcks should be jointly solving problems as long appraisees always focus on the future not the past. Several characteristics of 360-degree feedback at firms may have considerable advantages of implementing TQM, and â€Å"One survey showed that more than 20 percent of firms are tying 360-degree appraisal directly to their Total Quality Management efforts† (Laabs, 1994, p. 17). Applying the 360-degree feedback compliments the implementation of TQM in businesses since it has faster communication line (superiors to subordinates) and uncomplicated system that meets customer needs and expectations. Glover (1993) argues that there is a five-stage implementation framework that could be applied in enterprises: awareness, education, structural change, necessary activities, and outcomes or expected improvements (as cited in Yusof & Aspinwall, 2000, p. 281). Appropriate design of the 360-degree feedback will absolutely provide a strong basis for the path to successful TQM implementation. A systematic procedure such as ISO 9000 is the first-most effective way that can solve the quality problems in many businesses. Take for instance, the 360-degree feedback is used to measure the effectiveness of Just In Time (JIT) inventory system in plant department within company. Consequently, an integrated JIT inventory model generated through 360-degree system can minimize the sum of the ordering/ setup cost, holding cost, quality improvement, and crashing costs (Yang & Pan, 2004). Once those procedures have been established, the next step is to plan for improvement. If the need for change is highly needed, some methods suggested by Asher (1992) could encourage the renovation process of the implementation: investigating cost of quality, conducting customer perception surveys, collecting data on employees’ perceptions, and establishing system and procedure (as cited in Yusof & Aspinwall, 2000, p. 289). This type of approach in context of management will escalate the job performance as it will result in improved productivity in workers. I agree with Wright’s (2000) standpoint saying that 360-degree feedback can be seen as result-oriented concerned with focusing on the goals rather than the process (Robert F. Wright, 2000). More importantly, such a evaluation should lead the employees to work together attaining the company’s goals, as Wright (2000) says, â€Å"It is critical for a good manager to be more concerned with the results and less with the process of how those are achieved† (Robert F. Wright, 2000, p. 363). As long as the process is performed well, managers should be more concerned about the results not necessarily the technique. With regards to labors’ skills, through evaluations management should encourage its workers give feedback about what needs to change and where to change, as Loup and Koller says,† Listening and speaking from the heart about what people think, feel, and believe about the change will keep the change process moving forward† (Loup & Koller, 2005, p. 77). As we can conclude, utilizing well-scheduled 360-degree feedbacks as a performance appraisal is the management’s responsibilities for introducing, applying, and maintaining the practice punctually once it has started. Some companies consider a 360-degree feedback and other appraisals are attributable to adverse quality, and ironically the process in implementing those techniques seem to be time-consuming and convey some negative perceptions to the management. Management should contemplate that the company’s goals will not be successfully attained if employees do not notice whether or not they are performing well on their job as Senge (1990) concludes that yet the primary threats to our survival today come not from events but from slow gradual processes to which we are 90 percent blind (Peter M. Senge, 1990). In conclusion, all the suggestions by experts above regarding quality improvements mostly explain the importance of the 360-degree feedback within companies. Therefore, 360-degree assessment can assist the management on track and measure employee’s performance and leadership which could contribute to overall organization performance (Marcie Levine, 2003). Finally, if the 360-degree appraisal is not applied soon, I believe companies will experience a problem which can be looming ahead for the company itself in the years to come. References Angelucci, Patricia. 2000). Cultural diversity: health belief systems. Nursing Management Journal, 7-8. Brutus, Stephane et al. (2006). Internationalization of multi-source feedback systems: a six-country exploratory analysis of 360- degree feedback. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1888-1906. Evans, A. (2001). From every angle. Training, 38 (9), 22. Garbett, Robert. (2007). Developing a qualitative approach t o 360-degree feedback to aid understanding and development of clinical expertise. Journal of Nursing Management, 342-347. Gillespie, Treena L. (2005). Internationalizing 360-degree feedback: are subordinate ratings comparable? Journal of Business and Psychology, 361-382. hands of people to effect change. Organizational Development Journal, 23(3), 73-81. Huet-Cox, G. D. , Nielsen T. M. , & Sundstrom, E. (1999, May). Get the most from 360-degree feedback: put it on the internet. HR Magazine, 92-103. Laabs, J. J. (1994). TQM Efforts to Rewards. Personnel Journal, 17. Law, David R. (2007). Appraising performance appraisals: a critical look at an external control management technique. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 35-47. Levine, Marcie. (2003). 3600 assessments-where do I start? Survey Connect Inc, 1-4. Loup, R. , & Koller, R. (2005). The road to commitment: Capturing the head, hearts and Pearce, Chris. (2007). Ten steps to conducting appraisals. Nursing Management Journal, 21. Porter, Michael E. , Takeuchi, Hirotaka & Sakakibara, Mariko. (2000). Can Japan compete? Cambridge: Perseus Publishing. Pryor, Mildred G. , White, J. Chris & Toombs, Leslie A. (1998). Strategic Quality Management. Thomson Learning. Senge, Peter M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization (1st ed. . New York: Doubleday. Wright, Robert F. (2000). Strategies for avoiding the micro management trap. Journal of Management Decision, 362-364. Yang, Jin-Shan, & Pan, Jason Chao-Hsien. (2004). Just-in-time purchasing: an integrated inventory model involving deterministic variable lead time and quality improvement investment. International Journal of Production Research, 853-863. Yusof, Sha’ri M ohd & Aspinwall, Elaine. (2000). Total quality management implementation frameworks: comparison and review. Journal of Total Quality Management, 281-294. www. 12manage. com www. performanceprograms. com 360 Degree Feedback Abstract As today’s businesses continue to expand, workers are expected to perform well on their jobs. This is what truly happened to management who has a tendency to measure how well they are doing on their job. The job done in a certain period of time is frequently evaluated by performance appraisal. Performance appraisals lead to enhancing employee’s performance, internal communication (relationship), and quality improvements as well. Some experts argue that formal performance appraisal is somewhat useless and many of them contemplate performance appraisals can be detrimental to quality improvement and convey some negative perceptions to the management (David Law, 2007). Albeit many professionals pointed out disadvantages associated with using performance appraisal, I contemplate that its benefits outweigh drawbacks. As such, a 360-degree feedback is one of the numerous examples of performance evaluation methods. Performance appraisals can be used to measure one’s job performance with feedback from subordinates, peers, and managers in the organization, so that everyone in the particular organization knows what and where he or she needs to improve. In addition, well-scheduled 360-degree feedbacks lead to positive changes in worker’s job satisfaction and enhance the company’s effort to attain its own interest. The stable encouragement of the effects of performance appraisal has a variety of short-term and long-term consequences including improved job performance, harmonious interpersonal relationships (superiors and subordinates), and as well as advanced quality management (continuous improvement) within organizations. History The 360-degree feedback was initially used by the U. S. Armed Forces to support development of its staff in the 1940’s. Later on Clark Wilson from the University of Bridgeport (Connecticut) developed the first 360-degree feedback survey instruments for management development and it has been used and studied since 1973 (www. erformanceprograms. com). Valuable factors A 360-degree feedback offers a variety of remarkably potential benefits. According to Stephane Brutus et al. (2006), all of the following benefits have been applied to six different countries in distinct functions, such as: accounting, finance, manufacturing, and many other primary departments. â⠂¬ ¢Individuals get a broader perspective of how they are perceived by others than previously possible. It indicates that awareness of and relevance of competencies in workers’ psyche will continue to increase over time. At this point, management should be aware that they too have development needs that are crucial for the whole organization. Once this step has been applied, employees would next give more reliable feedback to managers about their performance. I believe this method could be seen as a win-win situation which is beneficial for both workers and management. †¢Encouraging more open feedback — new insights. It indicates that reinforcing the desired competencies of the business requires a clearer picture to senior management of individual’s real worth. A 360-degree feedback clarifies the employee’s critical performance aspects because open feedback gives people a more rounded view of performance than they had previously. †¢Identifying key development areas for the individual, a department and the organization as a whole. Individuals’ strengths can be used to the best advantage of the business. A rounded view of the individual’s/ team’s/ organization’s performance determines appropriately strengths and weaknesses in business environment. Therefore, the self-awareness of managers will have personally impact upon subordinates. †¢Supporting a climate of continuous improvement. Starting to improve the climate/ morale will be measured through the survey. Management should focus on agenda and discuss for development based upon the collected 360-degree feedback. Goals and objectives of 360-degree feedback Applying 360-feedback requires that both recipients and reviewers are involved in confidential feedback. The negative effect of transparent feedback can negatively affected by emotions and peer conflicts. This issue can lead to impaired job performance and adverse interpersonal relationship among the employees. Patricia Angelucci (2000) states the desired objectives of a 360-degree feedback are increasing professional accountability, motivating staff, and increasing employee morale and satisfaction (Angelucci, 2000). Importantly, she claims that 360-degree appraisal given to employees provides for constructive feedback and employee recognition by objectively measuring performance, and gives the employee the responsibility to contribute information (Patricia Angelucci, 2000). It is clear that using 360-degree feedback can necessarily improve labors’ job performance as long the evaluations are delivered honestly, openly, and objectively to the targets in every aspect of management including superiors and subordinates. Process of 360-feedback Robert Garbett et al. (2007) suggest several recommendations to optimize the usefulness of the process in preparing 360-degree feedback: 1. Thorough preparation. It is remarkably crucial to all members involved about the purpose and criteria used to identify role set members. Preparation indicates key to achieve successfulness in implementing 360-degree appraisal. 2. Suitability. Methods used in gathering information need to reflect what is convenient and appropriate to the colleagues one is working with. 3. Anonymity. Anonymity and openness were found to be useful. Open approaches offer more detailed information for the development of expertise and workforce effectiveness. Further, Garbett et al. (2007) add that the characteristic useful to ensure quality on 360-degree feedbacks is self-assessment based on critical reflection using an evidence-based framework of field expertise (Garbett, 2007). This method will prevent employees from mistakenly giving feedback to coworkers, and it should be based on observation of practice and experience in the past. The implementation of 360-degree feedback has been widely used across the globe since its benefits to the every sector of management. Metcalfe (1998) and Swain et al (2004) says, â€Å"The concept of 360-degree feedback has been extensively used, examined, and adapted in business and increasingly in healthcare as a developmental tool† (As cited in Garbett et al. , 2007, p. 343). Ten steps to conducting 360-degree feedback Chris Pearce (2007) suggests there are ten steps to help companies conduct 360-degree appraisal: ? Preparing for appraisal interviews. This step includes agreed performance objectives and reviews that have been applied at any given times. ?Planning appraisals Imperative interviews held by the management have to be relaxed and solemn will be covered on this step. ?Conducting appraisals The third step involves placing situation of the prolific substitutes thoughts, demonstrating the ability of comfort and prevention due to interruptions during the interview, and pioneering the basic regulation for appraisals and the concerns by appraisees. Reviewing achievements Next, this step explains about assessing appraisees’ accomplishment and detecting where the appraisees’ position. ?Sharing views on progress Offering responses on appraisees’ accomplishment, ensuring appraisees’ aggrement on the responses, and creating the improvement if needed are covered on this st ep. ?Considering ratings This step is concerned with contributing the appraisees’ beliefs by rating the conclusions before the last result comes up. ?Plans for improvement Expanding and accentuating the further progression of the failings must be applied in the conformity and conversation should be involved in this step. ?Dealing with development plans This step deals with sincerity and factuality that must be concerned with the appraisees’ objectives and profession ambition. ?Agreeing new objectives With regards to SMART which stands for specific, measurable, appropriate, realistic, and timed, appraisses’ goals and time spent should be involved in this step. Asking for feedback In the last step, questioning about appraisees’ responses to them, abridging the essential points of evaluation, and ending with conclusion should be applied for the last action. Discussion Every country has been fascinated with Japanese industry for decades and it became recognized as the world’s most competitive nation in the 1970s and 1980s. Nowadays, many small and big companies all over the world attempt to apply the Japanese system to their sys tem in every aspect of management. Several experts explain why Japan can compete well to attract its target market albeit the rivalry among the competing sellers is high in the country. It is simply a distinctive approach to Japanese management has brought remarkable impact in today’s practices such as total quality and continuous improvement (Porter, Takeuchi, & Sakakibara, 2000). With regards to improvement initiatives, Pryor, White, and Toombs (1998) point out that performance appraisal is one of the strategic quality management tools which use continuous improvement as a strategic weapon (http://www. 12manage. com). In addition, Bracken and Timmreck (1999) also agree that performance evaluations are essential for developing managerial behaviors in every level that provide data in its strategic efforts when they say, â€Å"As results of 360-degree feedback are used in conjunction with HR systems, such as staffing, succession planning, compensation, performance management and even, in some cases, downsizing† (As cited in Treena L. Gillespie, 2005, p. 363). In establishing 360-degree feedback, I contemplate there is another aspect affects people’s judgment relating to leaving feedbacks to coworkers. Coaching is one of the critical components of stimulating interpersonal relationship in conjunction with feedback results. Wright states, â€Å"The coaching component in management is a two way street. There needs to be open communication in order for successful coaching to take place† (Robert F. Wright, 2000). As such, I would like to emphasize that two-way interaction between subordinates and superiors is required in order to affect feedbacks and indeed, better feedbacks will generate better relationship. This component could cover poor communication problem which can lead to unpleasant feedbacks to employees within an organization. Nowadays, big companies such as British Airways, AT&T, Alberto Culver North America, and General Electric are increasingly using 360-degree feedback (Huet-Cox, Nielsen, & Sundstrom, 1999). According to Evans (2001), using 360-degree feedback can potentially provide a fuller, more realistic picture of the employee’s overall performance since every employee receives performance feedback from four sources: the supervisors, subordinates, peers and coworkers, and self-ratings (Evans, 2001). Effective appraisals usually lead to better performances from appraisees, and feedabcks should be jointly solving problems as long appraisees always focus on the future not the past. Several characteristics of 360-degree feedback at firms may have considerable advantages of implementing TQM, and â€Å"One survey showed that more than 20 percent of firms are tying 360-degree appraisal directly to their Total Quality Management efforts† (Laabs, 1994, p. 17). Applying the 360-degree feedback compliments the implementation of TQM in businesses since it has faster communication line (superiors to subordinates) and uncomplicated system that meets customer needs and expectations. Glover (1993) argues that there is a five-stage implementation framework that could be applied in enterprises: awareness, education, structural change, necessary activities, and outcomes or expected improvements (as cited in Yusof & Aspinwall, 2000, p. 281). Appropriate design of the 360-degree feedback will absolutely provide a strong basis for the path to successful TQM implementation. A systematic procedure such as ISO 9000 is the first-most effective way that can solve the quality problems in many businesses. Take for instance, the 360-degree feedback is used to measure the effectiveness of Just In Time (JIT) inventory system in plant department within company. Consequently, an integrated JIT inventory model generated through 360-degree system can minimize the sum of the ordering/ setup cost, holding cost, quality improvement, and crashing costs (Yang & Pan, 2004). Once those procedures have been established, the next step is to plan for improvement. If the need for change is highly needed, some methods suggested by Asher (1992) could encourage the renovation process of the implementation: investigating cost of quality, conducting customer perception surveys, collecting data on employees’ perceptions, and establishing system and procedure (as cited in Yusof & Aspinwall, 2000, p. 289). This type of approach in context of management will escalate the job performance as it will result in improved productivity in workers. I agree with Wright’s (2000) standpoint saying that 360-degree feedback can be seen as result-oriented concerned with focusing on the goals rather than the process (Robert F. Wright, 2000). More importantly, such a evaluation should lead the employees to work together attaining the company’s goals, as Wright (2000) says, â€Å"It is critical for a good manager to be more concerned with the results and less with the process of how those are achieved† (Robert F. Wright, 2000, p. 363). As long as the process is performed well, managers should be more concerned about the results not necessarily the technique. With regards to labors’ skills, through evaluations management should encourage its workers give feedback about what needs to change and where to change, as Loup and Koller says,† Listening and speaking from the heart about what people think, feel, and believe about the change will keep the change process moving forward† (Loup & Koller, 2005, p. 77). As we can conclude, utilizing well-scheduled 360-degree feedbacks as a performance appraisal is the management’s responsibilities for introducing, applying, and maintaining the practice punctually once it has started. Some companies consider a 360-degree feedback and other appraisals are attributable to adverse quality, and ironically the process in implementing those techniques seem to be time-consuming and convey some negative perceptions to the management. Management should contemplate that the company’s goals will not be successfully attained if employees do not notice whether or not they are performing well on their job as Senge (1990) concludes that yet the primary threats to our survival today come not from events but from slow gradual processes to which we are 90 percent blind (Peter M. Senge, 1990). In conclusion, all the suggestions by experts above regarding quality improvements mostly explain the importance of the 360-degree feedback within companies. Therefore, 360-degree assessment can assist the management on track and measure employee’s performance and leadership which could contribute to overall organization performance (Marcie Levine, 2003). Finally, if the 360-degree appraisal is not applied soon, I believe companies will experience a problem which can be looming ahead for the company itself in the years to come. References Angelucci, Patricia. 2000). Cultural diversity: health belief systems. Nursing Management Journal, 7-8. Brutus, Stephane et al. (2006). Internationalization of multi-source feedback systems: a six-country exploratory analysis of 360- degree feedback. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1888-1906. Evans, A. (2001). From every angle. Training, 38 (9), 22. Garbett, Robert. (2007). Developing a qualitative approach t o 360-degree feedback to aid understanding and development of clinical expertise. Journal of Nursing Management, 342-347. Gillespie, Treena L. (2005). Internationalizing 360-degree feedback: are subordinate ratings comparable? Journal of Business and Psychology, 361-382. hands of people to effect change. Organizational Development Journal, 23(3), 73-81. Huet-Cox, G. D. , Nielsen T. M. , & Sundstrom, E. (1999, May). Get the most from 360-degree feedback: put it on the internet. HR Magazine, 92-103. Laabs, J. J. (1994). TQM Efforts to Rewards. Personnel Journal, 17. Law, David R. (2007). Appraising performance appraisals: a critical look at an external control management technique. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 35-47. Levine, Marcie. (2003). 3600 assessments-where do I start? Survey Connect Inc, 1-4. Loup, R. , & Koller, R. (2005). The road to commitment: Capturing the head, hearts and Pearce, Chris. (2007). Ten steps to conducting appraisals. Nursing Management Journal, 21. Porter, Michael E. , Takeuchi, Hirotaka & Sakakibara, Mariko. (2000). Can Japan compete? Cambridge: Perseus Publishing. Pryor, Mildred G. , White, J. Chris & Toombs, Leslie A. (1998). Strategic Quality Management. Thomson Learning. Senge, Peter M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization (1st ed. . New York: Doubleday. Wright, Robert F. (2000). Strategies for avoiding the micro management trap. Journal of Management Decision, 362-364. Yang, Jin-Shan, & Pan, Jason Chao-Hsien. (2004). Just-in-time purchasing: an integrated inventory model involving deterministic variable lead time and quality improvement investment. International Journal of Production Research, 853-863. Yusof, Sha’ri M ohd & Aspinwall, Elaine. (2000). Total quality management implementation frameworks: comparison and review. Journal of Total Quality Management, 281-294. www. 12manage. com www. performanceprograms. com

Common Reasons For The Failure Of New Small Businesses

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